A new historical study reveals that the Greek Revolution of the 1820s forced major changes in the Ottoman Empire’s internal governance, particularly in how it treated and monitored its non-Muslim subjects.
Led by Masayuki Ueno from Osaka Metropolitan University, the research shows that the empire responded to the Greek revolt not only with military action but also by reshaping how it dealt with identity, surveillance, and religious minorities. Ueno’s study provides a detailed picture of a government trying to tighten its grip over a diverse population in an era of fear and political unrest.
The Greek uprising, which began in 1821, deeply unsettled the Ottoman rulers. The rebellion didn’t remain limited to the provinces. Its effects were felt at the heart of the empire—especially in Istanbul (Constantinople), where many Greek Orthodox Christians, Armenians, and Jews lived.
According to records from the time, some military leaders even urged the Sultan’s court to remove or massacre Christians in the city, believing they posed a threat. Sultan Mahmut II rejected the most extreme proposals but agreed that trust in the Orthodox community had been lost.
This fear wasn’t directed only at Greeks. The empire began to view non-Muslim subjects more broadly as potential threats. Suspicion extended to Armenians and other religious minorities, regardless of their individual loyalties.
In response, Ottoman authorities began building new systems of control. One of the first steps was inspecting inns and homes to create lists of non-Muslim residents. People were forced to prove their identity and loyalty. Those without trusted guarantors were expelled from Istanbul.
Officials ordered male Muslims to arm themselves. At the same time, Christian residents were forced to surrender their weapons. Homes were searched, and records were made listing each Christian man’s name, address, job, and even physical appearance.
Later in 1821, the government introduced an internal passport system. It banned travel to and from Istanbul unless a person carried official permission. What started as a tool aimed at Orthodox Christians soon expanded to include everyone—Muslims, Jews, and Armenians alike.
This turning point in the Greek Revolution marked a shift in the Ottoman Empire’s governance, as the state began enforcing travel bans and demanding identity documents from all subjects. Surveillance now applied to all subjects, not just a targeted few. The state’s goal had shifted to full control of population movement and identity verification.
The government faced a problem: it couldn’t identify non-Muslim subjects using Muslim officials alone. The solution was to bring in religious authorities—patriarchs, rabbis, and priests—who knew their communities well.
These leaders were now asked to vouch for their members’ identities, issue certificates, and help enforce travel restrictions. In return, the state formally recognized their authority.
The move gave more power to these religious leaders but also made them part of the empire’s control system. Some cooperated willingly, eager to show loyalty and avoid being treated as enemies.
This cooperation created a more formal system of governance over non-Muslims. Communities were now represented by official figures, which laid the groundwork for what later became known as the millet system—a framework for managing religious diversity in the empire.
During this period, many non-Muslim groups scrambled to show their allegiance. Latin Catholics on the Aegean islands, for example, wrote letters condemning the Greek rebels and pledging loyalty to the empire.
In 1827, the empire appointed both a Muslim official and a Latin representative to handle the affairs of Catholic subjects. These appointments formalized Catholic identity within the state, making it easier to monitor and manage their population.
However, not all Catholics were treated the same. The following year, the government expelled thousands of Catholic Armenians from Istanbul. Officials viewed them as too closely linked to foreign powers like France and Russia, who were pressuring the Ottomans over the Greek question. This harsh action came as the empire tried to distance itself from Western influence.
Religious politics played a major role in this decision. To prove loyalty, Armenian Church leaders cut ties with their highest clerical authority in Eastern Armenia—then under Russian control. By distancing themselves from the Russian-linked church, they gained favor with the Ottoman government.
As the empire tried to root out rebellion and secure loyalty, it moved toward standardizing how it dealt with non-Muslims. Each religious group—Orthodox Christians, Jews, Catholics, and Armenian Apostolic Christians—was assigned a representative to interact with the state.
By the early 1830s, Jews in Istanbul petitioned for their Chief Rabbi to receive the same recognition as Christian patriarchs. The request was granted, marking another step in the empire’s shift toward formalized, religion-based administration.
This arrangement brought new responsibilities. Religious leaders now kept population records, issued documents, and helped control movement. In exchange, their communities were officially recognized. But this recognition came at a cost: they became part of the state’s expanding surveillance system.
Masayuki Ueno’s study challenges earlier ideas about Ottoman religious tolerance. He argues that the millet system didn’t grow out of long-standing coexistence but from suspicion and political need. The empire, shaken by revolt and fearful of foreign influence, saw surveillance as a solution. It turned to religious authorities to help build that system.
This shift, which began in the 1820s, laid the foundation for the sweeping reforms of the mid-19th century, known as the Tanzimat. It also marked the start of a new era in which identity, religion, and loyalty were deeply tied to the state’s control over its people.
Ueno’s study reveals how the Greek Revolution sparked changes in the Ottoman Empire’s governance structure, leading to deeper state involvement in everyday lives.
